The Altus Cumulus Electrification Study (ACES) was a field investigation focused on examining electrical activity in storms and validating satellite observations from the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS). ACES included a single deployment in August 2002 over the Florida Everglades. An uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV), ALTUS II, was used to collect electric-field and lightning measurements in thunderstorms. Ground-based observations from various lightning detection networks were also gathered. ACES supported NASA's TRMM mission and the UAV Science Demonstration Program.
Rain gauges are ground-based instruments that directly measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a specified period. Different types of rain gauges, such as tipping buckets and weighing gauges, collect and record data in various ways. Because of their small size and easy setup, rain gauges can be placed in different locations and are often used alongside other precipitation instruments, such as disdrometers, to gather additional details, such as precipitation rate and size distribution.
The Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) is an active, ground-based acoustic sounder that profiles virtual temperature. It uses radar techniques to measure acoustic disturbances and derive virtual temperature. RASS is typically used alongside radar wind profilers (RWPs) and operates at 915 MHz and 1290 MHz. It has a sampling interval of approximately 5 to 15 minutes, a vertical resolution of 150 m, and a horizontal resolution of 60 m.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Temperature > Surface Temperature > Boundary Layer Temperature
The Lightning Detection and Ranging (LDAR) system is a ground-based lightning network at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). It comprises seven very high-frequency (VHF) radio receivers that detect radio pulses from lightning. These receivers are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, 6 to 10 km from the central receiver. The LDAR system operates at 66 MHz with a bandwidth of 6 MHz. It has a typical detection range of 100 km and a time resolution of 10 ns. It provides near real-time lightning mapping to support Space Shuttle operations.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
The Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) is a network of high-resolution, S-band radars operated by the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the United States Air Force. NEXRAD measures the magnitude of returned energy to provide reflectivity, velocity, and spectrum width observations, which can be processed into mosaic maps of precipitation. NEXRAD radars typically operate with a 0.9-degree beamwidth, 0.25 to 1 km spatial resolution, and a maximum range of 230 to 460 km. Currently, over 160 NEXRAD radars operate across the United States and in some overseas locations.
The National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) is a remote, ground-based network operated by Vaisala. It comprises over 100 lightning detection sensors across the United States. These sensors detect the electromagnetic signals emitted by lightning to provide information on the location, time, polarity, and amplitude of each lightning stroke. NLDN has a detection efficiency greater than 95% for cloud-to-ground lightning and a location accuracy of better than 100 m.
The Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Surveillance System (CGLSS) is a ground-based lightning detection network at Kennedy Space Center, operated by the United States Air Force. It comprises six medium-gain IMPACT Enhanced Sensitivity and Performance (ESP) sensors developed by Vaisala. The CGLSS network detects cloud-to-ground lightning by capturing electromagnetic waveforms of the return stroke, transmits the data to a central processor that estimates the stroke's intensity and location, and delivers this information to users in real time. Lightning data from the network supports decisions about ground and launch activities along the Florida coast.
The Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (DRWP) is a wind profiler system operated by NASA at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). It detects radar signals to provide profiles of wind speed, direction, and shear. KSC operates two DRWP systems: a 50-MHz DRWP and a 915-MHz DRWP. The 50-MHz DRWP provides profiles every 5 minutes at 150-meter intervals from 2 to 18.6 km. The 915-MHz DRWP provides profiles every 15 minutes at 100-meter intervals from approximately 150 to 6100 meters.
An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform that measure atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed and direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Water Vapor
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Pressure
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Water Vapor > Water Vapor Indicators > Humidity
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Temperature > Surface Temperature > Air Temperature
C-band radars operate in the 4-8 GHz frequency range. They provide measurements of radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other parameters to characterize precipitation and clouds. C-band radars are typically used for short-range weather observations because they are more prone to attenuation.
The Dual Optical Pulse Sensor (DOPS) is an airborne optical sensor used to study atmospheric lightning. It is an improved version of the Optical Pulse Sensor (OPS). DOPS measures lightning duration, intensity, and waveform features. It operates on two channels centered at 500 and 777.4 nm, with a sampling duration of 0.328 seconds. It has a wide field of view (60 degrees) and can detect lightning during daylight.
The Parallel Plate Antenna is a passive device that measures the vertical electric fields generated by lightning. It consists of two or more horizontal flat plates separated by a few meters to detect electromagnetic radiation emitted by lightning. The antenna can be configured for either slow-field or fast-field measurements. The slow-field antenna has a longer decay time constant and is used to measure lightning flashes over longer periods, while the fast-field antenna has a shorter decay time and captures rapid changes in the electric field from individual lightning strikes. The slow-field antenna operates in the 1 Hz to 100 kHz frequency range, whereas the fast-field antenna operates from 1 Hz to 3 MHz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Accelerometers are in situ sensors that measure the acceleration experienced by an object. They use electromagnetic sensing to detect the object's vibration. The vibration exerts a force on the sensor, producing an electrical charge that indicates the magnitude of the force and can be used to determine the acceleration. Accelerometers are typically used on aircraft to collect flight navigation information. They have also been deployed on research vessels and other water-based platforms, such as buoys.
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The Gerdien Probe is an in situ airborne conductivity device. It measures atmospheric electrical conductivity by recording the time it takes for a sample of air to discharge after exposure to a capacitor. The Gerdien probe can detect both positive and negative ions. It can be mounted on aircraft, uncrewed aerial systems (UAS), and rockets.
An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric field sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
A Search Coil Magnetometer (SCM) is a passive, remote magnetometer that detects lightning and rapid changes in the magnetic field. It operates on Faraday’s law of induction. When the magnetic field changes, it induces a current in the coil, which is then amplified and recorded. SCMs typically operate from 100 Hz to 100 kHz and are suitable for airborne, spaceborne, and ground-based applications.
Earth Science > Solid Earth > Geomagnetism > Magnetic Field
The Electric Field Change Meter (EFCM) is an airborne in situ electric field meter. It uses a two-channel (fast and slow) antenna system to measure electric field changes caused by lightning. The fast channel samples at 10 MHz and detects the radiative component of lightning discharges. The slow channel samples at 1 MHz and measures the electrostatic field component. The EFCM operates over a frequency range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz and has a detection radius of 25 km.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Magnetometers are passive instruments that measure variations in Earth’s magnetic field. There are two types of magnetometers: a vector magnetometer, which measures the vector components of a magnetic field, and a total-field magnetometer, which measures the magnitude. Magnetometers are used for geophysical surveys and ocean exploration. They can be deployed in airborne, ground-based, or water-based operations.
Earth Science > Solid Earth > Geomagnetism > Magnetic Field
