The Altus Cumulus Electrification Study (ACES) was a field investigation focused on examining electrical activity in storms and validating satellite observations from the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS). ACES included a single deployment in August 2002 over the Florida Everglades. An uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV), ALTUS II, was used to collect electric-field and lightning measurements in thunderstorms. Ground-based observations from various lightning detection networks were also gathered. ACES supported NASA's TRMM mission and the UAV Science Demonstration Program.
Rain gauges are ground-based instruments that measure liquid precipitation amounts directly over a specified period. Different rain gauges, such as tipping buckets and weighing gauges, collect and record data in various ways. Because of their small size and easy setup, rain gauges can be placed in different locations and are often used alongside other precipitation instruments like disdrometers to gather more details, such as precipitation rate and size distribution.
The Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) is an active ground-based acoustic sounder that provides profiles of virtual temperature. It uses radar techniques to measure acoustic disturbances and derive the virtual temperature. RASS is typically used alongside radar wind profilers (RWPs) and operates at frequencies of 915 MHz and 1290 MHz. It has a sampling rate of approximately 5 to 15 minutes, a vertical resolution of 150 m, and a horizontal resolution of 60 m.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Temperature > Surface Temperature > Boundary Layer Temperature
The Lightning Detection and Ranging (LDAR) system is a ground-based lightning network located at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). It consists of seven very high-frequency (VHF) radio receivers that detect radio pulses produced by lightning. These receivers are arranged in a hexagonal pattern about 6 to 10 km from the central receiver. The LDAR system operates at 66 MHz with a bandwidth of 6 MHz. It has a typical detection range of 100 km and a time resolution of 10 ns. It provides near real-time mapping of lightning to support Space Shuttle operations.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
The Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) is a network of high-resolution, S-band radars operated by the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the United States Air Force. NEXRAD measures the magnitude of the returned energy to provide reflectivity, velocity, and spectrum width observations, which can be processed to create mosaic maps of precipitation. NEXRAD radars typically operate with a 0.9-degree beamwidth, 0.25 to 1 km spatial resolution, and a maximum range of 230 to 460 km. Currently, over 160 NEXRAD radars are operating across the United States and some overseas locations.
The National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) is a remote, ground-based network operated by Vaisala. It consists of over 100 lightning detection sensors across the United States. These sensors detect the electromagnetic signals given off by lightning to provide information about the location, time, polarity, and amplitude of each lightning stroke. NLDN has a detection efficiency greater than 95% for cloud-ground lightning and has a location accuracy of better than 100 m.
The Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Surveillance System (CGLSS) is a ground-based lightning detection network located at Kennedy Space Center and operated by the United States Air Force. It includes six medium-gain IMPACT Enhanced Sensitivity and Performance (ESP) sensors developed by Vaisala. The CGLSS network detects cloud-to-ground lightning by capturing electromagnetic waveforms of the return stroke, transmits that data to a central processor, which estimates the stroke's intensity and location, and delivers this information to users in real-time. Lightning data from the network supports decisions related to ground and launch activities along the Florida coast.
The Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (DRWP) is a wind profiler system operated by NASA at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC). It detects radar signals to provide profiles of wind speed, direction, and shear. KSC operates two types of DRWP systems: a 50-MHz DRWP and a 915-MHz DRWP. The 50-MHz DRWP offers profiles every 5 minutes at intervals of 150 meters within an altitude range of 2 to 18.6 km. The 915-MHz DRWP offers profiles every 15 minutes at intervals of 100 meters within an altitude range of approximately 150 to 6100 meters.
An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and can operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Generic-Atmospheric State (Gen-AtmsState) refers to non-specific instruments on a platform used for measurements of atmospheric state parameters. These are typically in situ sensors that measure temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind speed/direction. Types of atmospheric state instruments include thermometers, hygrometers, barometers, and anemometers.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Water Vapor
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Pressure
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Water Vapor > Water Vapor Indicators > Humidity
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Temperature > Surface Temperature > Air Temperature
C-band radars operate within the 4-8 GHz frequency range. They provide measurements of radar reflectivity, Doppler velocity, and other parameters to characterize precipitation and clouds. C-band radars are usually used for short-range weather observations because they are more prone to attenuation.
The Dual Optical Pulse Sensor (DOPS) is an airborne optical sensor used to study lightning in the atmosphere. It is an improved version of the Optical Pulse Sensor (OPS). DOPS measures lightning's duration, intensity, and waveform features. It operates on two channels centered at 500 and 777.4 nm with a sample duration of 0.328 seconds. It has a wide field of view (60 degrees) and can detect lightning during daylight conditions.
The Parallel Plate Antenna is a passive device used to measure the vertical electric fields generated by lightning. It consists of two or more horizontal flat plates separated by a few meters to detect electromagnetic radiation emitted by lightning. The antenna can be adjusted for either slow-field or fast-field measurements. The slow-field antenna has a longer decay time constant and is used to measure lightning flashes over a longer period, while the fast-field antenna has a shorter decay time and captures rapid changes in the electric field from individual lightning strikes. The slow-field antenna operates in the 1 Hz to 100 kHz frequency range, whereas the fast-field antenna operates from 1 Hz to 3 MHz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Accelerometers are in situ sensors that measure the acceleration experienced by an object. Accelerometers utilize electromagnetic sensing to detect the vibration of an object. The force of vibration causes the sensor to produce an electrical charge, indicating how much force was exerted, which can be used to determine the acceleration. Accelerometers are typically used on aircraft when collecting flight navigation information. Accelerometers have also been deployed on research vessels and other water-based platforms such as buoys.
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The Gerdien Probe is an in situ airborne conductivity device. It measures atmospheric electrical conductivity by recording the time it takes for a sample of air to discharge after being exposed to a capacitor. The Gerdien probe can detect both positive and negative ions. It can be mounted on aircraft, uncrewed aerial systems (UAS), and rockets.
An Electric Field Mill (EFM) is a ground-based and airborne electric sensor developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). It measures the full vector components of the atmospheric electric field and provides information about the electrical structure within and around storms. EFMs can detect both intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning and can operate in large thunderstorm fields (thousands of volts per meter). An EFM typically has a response time of about 10 Hz.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
A Search Coil Magnetometer (SCM) is a passive, remote magnetometer used to detect lightning and rapid changes in the magnetic field. It operates based on Faraday’s law of induction. When the magnetic field changes, it induces a current in the coil, which is then amplified and recorded. SCMs generally operate within the 100 Hz to 100 kHz frequency range and are suitable for airborne, spaceborne, and ground-based uses.
Earth Science > Solid Earth > Geomagnetism > Magnetic Field
The Electric Field Change Meter (EFCM) is an airborne in situ electric meter. It uses a two-channel (fast and slow) antenna system to measure electric field changes caused by lightning. The fast channel samples at 10 MHz and detects the radiative component of lightning discharges. The slow channel samples at 1 MHz and observes the electrostatic field component. The EFCM operates across a frequency range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz and has a detection radius of 25 km.
Earth Science > Atmosphere > Atmospheric Electricity > Electric Field
Magnetometers are passive instruments that measure the variations in Earth’s magnetic field. There are two types of magnetometers: a vector magnetometer, which measures the vector components of a magnetic field, and a total field magnetometer, which measures the magnitude. Magnetometers are used for geophysical surveys and ocean exploration. They can be used for airborne, ground-based, or water-based operations.
Earth Science > Solid Earth > Geomagnetism > Magnetic Field
